Conversion of the Prussians
The conversion of the pagan Prussians was the principal religious undertaking of the Teutonic Order in the Baltic region, and it was one of the most consequential episodes in the Christianisation of the European continent. The Prussian clans were, in the early thirteenth century, the largest pagan population in central Europe, and the Order’s mission to the Prussians , in the view of the papacy, the principal theatre of the Baltic crusading movement. The conversion of the Prussians was, a substantial success: the pagan Prussians were, by the end of the thirteenth century, almost entirely Christianised, and the Prussian language survived only as a substrate beneath the German and Polish-speaking populations of the Order’s territories. The conversion was, however, accompanied by extensive violence, by the destruction of the old Prussian sacred sites, by the imposition of the Latin rite, and by a substantial transformation of the social and economic structures of the native populations.
The Prussian Religion
The religion of the pagan Prussians was, in the early thirteenth century, a polytheistic religion of the type common to the Baltic peoples. The principal deity was Patrimpas, a god of fertility and the underworld, and the second deity was Perkūnas, a god of thunder and the sky. The religion was served by a substantial body of priests, known as the waideler, who conducted the sacrifices, maintained the sacred sites, and interpreted the will of the gods. The sacred sites of the Prussian religion were located in the forests, on the hilltops, and at the sources of the rivers.
The Prussian religion was, in addition to the cult of the principal deities, served by a substantial body of folk practice. The Prussian calendar was marked by a number of seasonal festivals, the most important of which was the autumn festival of the dead, and the Prussian religious life was organised around the cycles of the agricultural year. The religion was, in addition, served by a substantial body of magical practice, including the use of amulets, the interpretation of dreams, and the consultation of the entrails of the sacrificial animals.
The Prussian religion was, in the early thirteenth century, a substantial obstacle to the Christianisation of the Prussian population. The Christian missionaries who entered the Prussian territories in the early thirteenth century were, generally Cistercian and Dominican monks, and the missionaries were, generally unsuccessful in their efforts to convert the Prussian population. The missionary effort was, dependent on the military support of the Order.
The Strategy of Conversion
The Order’s strategy of conversion was generally a strategy of conquest in depth. The Order built a chain of castles across the Prussian landscape, garrisoned by brother-knights and supplemented by lay brothers, mercenaries, and indigenous auxiliaries, and the Order used the castles as the bases from which the surrounding countryside was brought under Order control. The Order’s strategy was, in addition, a strategy of systematic destruction: the Order destroyed the sacred sites of the Prussian religion, killed the priests, and imposed the Latin rite on the surviving Prussian population.
The Order’s strategy of conversion was, in addition, a strategy of systematic colonisation. The Order encouraged the German-speaking peasants and townspeople of the surrounding regions to settle in the newly conquered Prussian territories, and the Order granted substantial privileges to the German-speaking settlers, in the form of free tenure, exemption from the ordinary taxes, and the right to participate in the new municipal government. The Order’s strategy of colonisation was, a central element in the Germanisation of the Prussian territories.
The Order’s strategy of conversion was, in addition, a strategy of systematic ecclesiastical organisation. The Order divided the Prussian territories into four dioceses — Culm, Pomesania, Ermland, and Samland — and the Order placed the dioceses under the direct authority of the Order, without the intermediation of the local bishops. The Order’s strategy of ecclesiastical organisation was, a central element in the development of the Latin Church in the Baltic region.
The Prussian Uprising
The conversion of the Prussian population was, however, not accomplished without substantial resistance. The Prussian uprising of 1260-1274 was, a major event in the history of the Order’s Prussian mission. The uprising began, in 1260, in the Sambian diocese, in the south-eastern corner of the Prussian territories, and it spread, in the course of the next two years, to most of the Prussian territories. The uprising was generally a reaction against the Order’s destruction of the old Prussian religious institutions.
The Order’s response to the uprising was generally a response of systematic military action. The Order, with the support of the German-speaking settlers and the Polish-speaking allies, conducted a long campaign against the Prussian insurgents, and the Order gradually reduced the insurgents to a small number of fortified positions in the forests of the south-eastern Baltic. The Order’s final victory over the insurgents was, in 1274, a substantial military success. The uprising was, however, a substantial embarrassment for the Order, and the Order’s response was a central element in the Order’s reputation for cruelty in the Polish national tradition.
The Legacy of the Conversion
The conversion of the Prussian population was, a substantial transformation. The Prussian language survived only as a substrate beneath the German and Polish-speaking populations of the Order’s territories, and the Prussian aristocracy was, for the most part, exterminated, displaced, or absorbed into the new German-speaking ruling class. The Prussian peasantry was, in time, reduced to a serf-like status. The four Prussian dioceses became, in the course of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, a central element in the ecclesiastical organisation of the Baltic region.
The conversion of the Prussian population was, one of the most consequential episodes in the Christianisation of the European continent. The conversion brought the Latin rite, the Roman ecclesiastical organisation, and the institutions of Latin Christian monarchy into a vast region of north-eastern Europe.
Sources
- Biskup, Marian, and Gerard Labuda. Dzieje zakonu krzyżackiego w Prusach. Gdańsk: Wydawnictwo Morskie, 1986.
- Boockmann, Hartmut. Der Deutsche Orden: Zwölf Kapitel aus seiner Geschichte. Munich: Beck, 1981.
- Christiansen, Eric. The Northern Crusades. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 1997.
Related Reading
For the Baltic mission of the Order, see the article on the Baltic mission. For the founding of the Order at Acre, see the article on the founding. For the Baltic theatre of the crusading movement, see the cluster on the Northern Crusades. For the Prussian state, see the pillar on the Teutonic State. For the religious mission of the Order, see the cluster on the religious mission. For the Augustinian framework, see the cluster on the Rule of St Augustine.